Police Patrols And Criminal Investigations Essay - 1878 Words

In this assignment I will discuss the history of law enforcement operations as it relates to Police patrols and Criminal investigations. This assignment paper will determine the key law enforcement agencies that are responsible for enforcing laws related to Police patrol and Criminal investigations. I will explain at least one major change in law enforcement operations related to issues I have selected and provide one reason why the identified change was necessary. I will give my opinion on whether the change improved law enforcement operations in dealing with Police patrols or Criminal investigations. I will discuss the main requirements related to training local and federal law enforcement authorities must address as they pertained to the topics I have selected. Police patrols are alleged to be the foundation of a police agency. I believe patrol officers are one of the most essential parts of a police department. The history of patrolling was the ideology of watch procedure s which was comprised of community volunteers and their fundamental duty was to alert the public of impending perils. In 1636 Boston created the night watch, New York follow suit in 1658 and later in Philadelphia in 1700. During this time the night watch personnel was not distinctly efficient in crime control. They frequently slept and consumed alcohol on duty. At the same time the night watchman position was voluntary, but most was simply trying to avoid military service or was aShow MoreRelatedPolice Operation : Patrol And Detective1450 Words   |  6 PagesPolice Operation: Patrol and Detective It may seem impossible to sum up the daily job description for a police officer. Police officers have to wear many hats during a career. From conducting traffic stops to making a death notification to a next of kin, the job of a police officer comes with many challenges. There is no such thing as routine patrol in law enforcement. Each day an officer may face a new challenge they have not faced before and how they respond and react may be a matter of lifeRead MorePolice Stations Are The Same908 Words   |  4 PagesNot all police stations are the same. Each police station has a different way of dealing with criminals and incidents in each state. There are a lot of aspects that make up a police station especially the San Diego Police Department. It ranges from officers to procedures to Vehicles. Some of these things are The Geographic size of patrol areas/population size, types of vehicles, the number of officers on patrol, arrest procedures, organizational structure, jail and d etention, investigation units andRead MoreLegal Services City Of Gulfport Mississippi1395 Words   |  6 PagesGulfport, Mississippi is has an approximate population of 80,000 and a daily population of over 144,000. The Gulfport Police Department is responsible for providing police services for over 55.6 square miles. The department is made up of 67 sworn personnel and 57 civilian personnell. Our department provides patrol services, traffic enforcement, criminal investigations, narcotics investigations, community and intelligence led policing initiatives, an R.U.O.K program that checks on the elderly, school resourceRead MorePolice Officer Training Curriculum Essay1333 Words   |  6 PagesPOLICE OFFICER TRAINING CURRICULUM The curriculum that is devised for a police officer is very important to the police officer and his or her success in their chosen career path. An officers training is also very important to the community in which they serve and the department in which they work. An officer must receive training in a variety of fields to help them be a well-rounded police officer. Officers receive training in such areas as: law, community relations, firearms, vehicle drivingRead MoreThe Police Department Is Responsible For Providing Police Services For Over 55.6 Square Miles1496 Words   |  6 PagesGulfport, Mississippi has an approximate population of 80,000 and a daily population of over 144,000. The Gulfport Police Department is responsible for providing police services for over 55.6 square miles. The department is made up of 67 sworn personnel and 57 civilian personnel. Our department provides patrol services, traffic enforcement, criminal investigations, narcotics investigations, communit y and intelligence led policing initiatives, an R.U.O.K program that checks on the elderly, school resourceRead MoreOrganizational Management and Operations1213 Words   |  5 Pagesstate, and federal organizational levels (CJA/484 – Criminal Justice Administration Capstone). 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This portrayal would make one think a police officer is always out doing a dangerous job, which may require shooting, beating up, or arrested the bad guy. The truth is, most officers will not make a felony arrest in a given year, and there are also many officers who have never firedRead MorePolice Department Roles and Functions943 Words   |  4 PagesPolice Department Roles and Functions CJA/214 September 20, 2012 Scott Mann Roles and Functions The Police Department must serve many roles and purposes so they also must take care of any issues that arise, dealing with the law or public safety. For this reason they have different specialized concentrations of officers designed to carry out certain functions. This also varies according to jurisdiction where there are state, local and even federal jurisdictions. This also affects what are

The United States A Global Power And The Attack On The...

The United States of America is a global power and had been for many years and as a result of that the U.S. has had to deal with global threats ranging from war threats to bombings and attacks. In this essay I will analyze and talk about how the U.S. responded to the attack on Pearl Harbor, The Cuban Missile Crisis, and the attack on the Twin Towers. On December 7, 1941, Hundreds of Japanese fighter planes attacked the United States specifically the American Naval base at Pearl Harbor near Honolulu. This surprise attack was tragic and killed over 2,000 soldiers and sailors and injured another 1,000 soldiers. The day after this attack President Franklin D Roosevelt asked congress to declare war on Japan and they approved this declaration. Not only did the USA declared on Japan , they joined world war 2 which had been alive for two years already. Relations between Japan and the U.S. weren t good at that time, the U.S enacted an embargo on oil supplies to Japan because of their in vasions of China. However, Roosevelt was trying to avoid American intervention in World War 2. Two days after the war started Roosevelt deliver a speech saying he would do all he could to avoid joining the war but as the 40s approached americans knew that with the threat of Hitler and Mussolini , they would no longer be safe in isolationism. Before we entered the war and before Pearl Harbor U.S. foreign policy changed to give aid to Britain because if they fell then America would have to engagedShow MoreRelatedTerrorist Theories Of Al Qaeda1426 Words   |  6 Pagessuicide attack against the United States. At 8:45 am, two of the four hijacked planes crashed into the Twin Towers at the World Trade Center, the third plane hit the Pentagon in Washington DC and the fourth plane crashed into a field in Pennsylvania. This day, was going to change America forever. Since the terrorist attacks, there has been many conspiracy theories that put fourth to what â€Å"actually happened†. As these conspiracies come, they range from planes not even hitting the Twin Towers but bombsRead MoreThe On The Twin Towers1634 Words   |  7 PagesOne of the most photographed, videoed and telecast events in human history(QUOTE), the attacks of September 11 (9/11/2001) on the Twin Towers, provide a case study for the power of an image, in this case, an image of disaster. Images are defined as a â€Å"visual impression† (QUOTE) something that captures the essence of a moment. With reference to images of disaster, these photographs aim to capture the grief, the loss and the immeasurable suffering of those involved. So what, it may be asked, is theRead MoreThe Perspective Of Ramzi Was Horrible1741 Words   |  7 Pages- BACKROUND 5.1 Perspective The perspective of Ramzi was awful. It takes hard work to get a mentality like his and his recruiters. When they were young they were taught to harm, kill and destroy. Ramzi wanted to destroy the United States. When he planned his attack towards The World Trade Center he wanted to make both buildings collapse. The van had to be parked a certain way so that when the bomb would explode then it would knock down the first building making it tip over and fall on top ofRead MoreEssay about A National Tradegy648 Words   |  3 PagesSeptember 11th- A National Tragedy, James Peck writes about how the tragic event, September 11th has affected our world today. Peck states that tragedy is a word that has commonly been overused by Americans throughout news articles and magazines when a significant event happens. When referring to September 11th, the crashing of the twin towers, this is a tragic event. 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Al Qaeda then planned an attack on the World trade center bombing and destroyi ng the foundation of the north tower on February 26th 1993. The bomb was expected to destroy the north tower causing it to plummet into the second south tower killing tens of thousands of people (McCormick, 2014). Fortunately it failed to do so killing six people in the process while injuring thousandsRead MoreThe Bombing Of The United States1168 Words   |  5 PagesSeptember eleven 2001 two planes were highjacked and flown into the twin towers as a suicide mission. This was the first major terrorist attack on the United States. Terrorism has taken so many innocent lives. Its an issue we deal with on a daily basis. Because of this, President George Bush took extreme measures and was very successful on the global war on terror. He made multiple changes to laws and regulations to help keep American citizens safe. Despite the extreme measures former president GeorgeRead MoreThe Attack On The World Trade Center1455 Words   |  6 Pageshijacked, they took down a major economic buildi ng, The World Trade Center. The Twin Towers were the key success to The World Trade Center complex, the North Tower stood at 1,268 feet and The South Tower stood at 1,362 feet high. The tallest buildings in New York City held 35,000 people each, along with 430 companies. This created an economic target, as each building represented economic power and freedom. The attack on the World Trade Center created an impact on the financial standing of AmericaRead MoreThe Transformation of America 1367 Words   |  6 Pagesconsciousness, subtle interactions between actors and slight shifts in beliefs are constantly changing the realities of the world. When the twin towers fell in 2001, the United States seemed to be thrust into a new world of Weapons of Mass Destruction, Jihadists, and a global fight against terrorism; bombs were dropped, ground forces were deployed in foreign states, and anyone who publicly questioned the urgency of war was at risk to be labeled a traitor. This one event w as indelibly branded on theRead MoreLowering Cost Of Oil In Russia Case Study1358 Words   |  6 Pagesoil. Therefore, Russia countines to support Syria economically because it will increase their global arms trade. As Russia’s global arms trade grows its influence will continue to grow. This will cultivate the declining ruble and will give relief from the damaging sanctions. Cost Evasion When ISIS grew in Iraq and Syria the group conducted terrorist attacks around the globe. According to the 2015 Global Terrorism Index it cost around $51.51 billion in 2001 to pay for the damages caused by the destruction

Benefits Of The Death Penalty Essay Example For Students

Benefits Of The Death Penalty Essay By: Tom Hall E-mail: Ace_in_VT Each year there are about 250 people added to death row and 35 executed. From 1976 to 1995 there were a total of 314 people put to death in the US 179 of them were put to death using lethal injection, 123 were put to death using electrocution, 9 were put to death in a gas chamber, 2 were hanged, and 1 was put to death using the firing squad. The death penalty is the harshest form of punishment enforced in the United Sates today. Once a jury has convicted a criminal, they go to the second part of the trial, the punishment phase. If the jury recommends the death penalty and the judge agrees then the criminal will face some form of execution, lethal injection is the most common form used today. There was a period from 1972 to 1976 that capital punishment was ruled unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Their reason for this decision was that the death penalty was cruel and unusual punishment under the Eighth Amendment. The decision was reversed when new methods of execution were introduced. Capital punishment is a difficult issue and there are as many different opinions as there are people. In our project, both sides have been presented and argued fully. Different forms of the death penalty are more humane than others. In the 1920s people decided that lethal gas, or the gas chamber, was more humane than death by electrocution. Nevada was the first state to adopt the gas chamber as their form of execution. The Humane Death Bill was passed abolishing all other forms of execution (Hanging or firing squad were the only other two forms of execution at that time) in the state of Nevada, this bill was signed by the governor on March 28, 1921. Not long after electrocution was tried as being inhumane, the gas chamber was challenged as being cruel and unusual punishment also. Gee Jon and Hughie Sing were the first two people to be sentenced to die by lethal gas. Justice Coleman, after the appeal was denied, relied on the Eighth Amendment prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment to try and prove that the courts was not able to say that lethal gas was a painless way of putting a man to death. He tried to prove that it would subject the victim to either pain or torture. Many people attended the execution of Gee Jon, some of who were physicians and scientists. They came to try and prove that this was a humane way of killing a man, and were unanimous in the end, pronouncing this as a quick and painless method of execution. Several of them said they thought it the most merciful form yet devised. (Vila, pg. 78-79) This is what happened to the victim according to A. Huftaker, E. E. Hammer, and Major D. A. Turner of the Army Medical Reserve Corps., The man went unconscious after his first breath of the vaporized acid (liquid hydrocyanic acid). Since the man was unconscious he did not feel any pain and died almost instantly. There for the death penalty was for that time a humane way of killing someone. Electrocution was also done away with in Florida. In its place came lethal injection. The 74 year old oak chair was banished after the second messed up execution in seven years. Jesse Taferos in 1990 and Pedro Medinas on march 25. These cases were the basis for the accusation that the electric chair was cruel and unusual punishment. In both executions, flames shot from the prisoners heads when the current of electricity was turned on. The chairs head gear was blamed for this problem. It was brutal, terrible. .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 , .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .postImageUrl , .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 , .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:hover , .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:visited , .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:active { border:0!important; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:active , .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256 .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub00a34b44463964440226455ddd9a256:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Oil In America Essay It was a burning-alive, literally, said attorney Michael Minerva after witnessing the Medina execution. After all this happened the question of what would replace the electric chair if and when Florida got rid of it came up. The answer to that was lethal injection, a mix of drugs that sends a person in to unconsciousness and then kills them. This was described as similar to putting an animal down. This was a method already employed by 32 states and seemed like the best solution to the problem at hand. Of the 32 states already using lethal injection Florida Corrections Commission surveyed 17 of these states. The majority of these states said that they switched to the needle, lethal injection because it is the most humane form of capital punishment. Florida took polls showing the death penalty was strongly supported. Texas, the first to use lethal injection in 1982, and other states has had this form of capital punishment tested in court time and time again and it has always come out as being valid and humane to the victim. Is Capital Punishment humane? Which methods, if any, are humane? The Prolonged suffering of an individual is not humane. Pain is subjective and it is Impossible to know with certainty the experience or range of experiences of those who undergo execution. Botched executions, where the offender lingers on before death, don not offer opportunities for us to assess the experience. (Executions in America pg.47) When the execution goes according to plan, the person doesnt live to tell about the experience and the effects of it. Execution can be a vary long and brutal process, when something goes wrong. Long ago, in the United States, hanging was he most widely used method of execution. the persons spine was supposed to snap. During the 18th Century and earlier, hanging were often botched. If the prisoner failed to die from the drop then they would slowly suffocate. If the prisoner was too heavy then the fall could rip the head from the body. The electric chair replaced hanging. The goal of electrocution is the paralysis of the heart and respiratory system. This happens through the burning of the internal organs. Willie Francis was a prisoner who experienced only a few seconds of electrocution and survived. This was a result of a malfunction of the machinery. He said that the experience was quite painful and that My mouth tasted like cold peanut butter. I felt a burning in my head and my left leg, and I jumped against the straps. I saw little blue and pink and green speckles. (Costanzo-44) A year later he was executed again. As you can see from these examples, the executed often undergoes horrific physical and even emotional abuse. Can you imagine living through electrocution and going through the process one, two, or three more times! Although we first think of the effects on the executed, we dont always think of the effects on other people. There are people directly and indirectly involved. For example, Jurors, prison officials, the families of the condemned, and even the families of victims witness or are tied to it some other way. Botched executions can be the result of mistakes by the executioners, equipment problems or struggling by the prisoner. In order to perform lethal injection a prisoner with a history of intravenous drug use, the executioner may have to surgically locate a deeper vein. Even a small error in dosage or administration can leave a prisoner conscious but paralyzed while dying, a sentient witness of his or her own, slow, lingering asohyxiation. (Costanzo-46) The executioner has to live with the fact that there were the cause of the agonizing death of another human being. A man lying face up on a hospital gurney is subjected to what looks like a routine medical procedure. The only difference is that the goal is to kill instead of heal.(Costanzo-47) In 1951, Eliso Mares was put to death by a firing squad. .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 , .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .postImageUrl , .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 , .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:hover , .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:visited , .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:active { border:0!important; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:active , .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139 .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue3bef812823ffacd09308431c041c139:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Heat Attacks Essay The prison staff likes Mares and so they aimed away from his heart Mares bled to death and it was a slow lingering process. Again, the executioners were at fault. In 1985, Alpha Otis Stephens was shocked with three 1,900 volt of electricity. When Stephens was shocked the first time, he struggled for breath for eight long minutes. he was shocked again but witnesses spotted him continuing to gasp for air. After 23 more breaths he was shocked one last time. Fred Leuchter, a major designer of the electrocution machinery, gave his opinion on the cons of the electric chair: If you overload an individuals body with current.. . Youll cook the meat on his body. Its like the meat on an overcooked chicken. If you grab the arm, the flesh will fall right off in your hands. . That doesnt mean that he felt anything. It simply means that its cosmetically not the thing to do. Presumably the state will return the remains to the victims family for burial. Returning somebody who has been cooked would be in poor taste. This would affect the victims family. Even if they chose not to watch the execution, the remains can be just as emotionally harmful. In the example that I started earlier, you can gather that is would not be pleasant to see your son or daughter executed numerous times or shocked a number of times. As you can see from the above arguments there are many paths you could take as far as if the death penalty is humane or not. As an over all out come of this paper I think that lethal injection is the most humane form of execution. The reason for this is it is really hard to botch this type of execution but the others such as electrocution and hanging can be botched quite easily. Although over all I think that the death penalty is a bad solution to this problem, the idea of two wrongs dont make a right comes into play in this case quite stongly, if it is really needed then I would have to say that lethal injection is the most humane form of execution. Although it is humane, I dont think I would be able to go through with actually being executed or executing someone. Word Count: 1664

Perceptions and Ideas of Belonging free essay sample

Perceptions and ideas of belonging, or of not belonging, vary. These perceptions are shaped within personal, cultural, historical and social contexts. A sense of belonging can emerge from the connections made with people, places, groups, communities and the larger world. Texts may also represent choices not to belong, or barriers which prevent belonging. Perceptions and ideas of belonging, or of not belonging, vary. In the poem Feliks Skrzynecki by Peter Skrzynecki, Feliks and Peter have different perceptions of belonging in Australia and the necessity of belonging in Australia. Feliks, the father, represents an alienation of an older migrant while Peter experiences the gradual integration of acceptance and affiliation in a new society. In the film Bend It Like Beckham directed by blah blah Jess and her mother have different perceptions of where she should belong. Her mother wants her to belong to the family and into an arranged marriage â€Å"I was married at your age! You don’t even want to learn to cook dhal! †, however Jess wants to rebel against the typical Indian lifestyle and belong to her sport team instead. We will write a custom essay sample on Perceptions and Ideas of Belonging or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Perceptions of belonging are shaped within personal, cultural, historical and social contexts. In the poem, Feliks Skrzynecki the fathers sense of belonging come from his Polish background, and his personal and historical context of being a laborer. Peters contrasting sense of alienation comes from his cultural context of being surrounded by Polish culture but never having been there himself and his personal context of experience of education. In the folk museum – The persona’s sense of alienation in the museum comes from his completely different cultural, historical and social context. He struggles to relate to the rural, colonial Australian experience – â€Å"to remind me of a past which isn’t mine†. In the film Bend It Like Beckham Jess feels a sense of alienation due to her cultural context. Her friend’s mother treats her differently all the time due to being Indian and also at the game when Jess is called a â€Å"paki†, a racial slur in England. A sense of belonging can come from connections made with people, places, groups, communities and the larger world. This is shown through Peter Skrzynecki’s poem Feliks Skrzynecki where Peter’s father’s strong sense of elonging comes from his connections with his friends (people), garden (place) and his cultural heritage. Also in Skrzynecki’s poem 10 Mary Street which explores Peter’s strong connection to place and the discomfort that comes when the place is threatened – â€Å"the whole block has been gazette for industry†. In the film Be nd It Like Beckham, Jess feels a sense of belonging with her soccer team while at home she feels a sense of alienation and rejection from her family due to the time she put into playing soccer and to her falsely accused sexual orientation – â€Å"Mother, just because I wear trackies and play sport does not make me a lesbian! There may be barriers which prevent belonging such as in Skrzynecki’s poem The Folk Museum where Peter’s distance from the cultural heritage and rural experiences of the artifacts displayed in the museum is a barrier preventing him from engaging in them. In Feliks Skrzynecki, Feliks faces a language barrier which prevents him from engaging in the wider community – â€Å"Did your father ever bother to learn English? †.

How to Find Starch, Protien and glucouse in Unkown Substance essays

How to Find Starch, Protien and glucouse in Unkown Substance essays Day 1: What organic or inorganic compounds (starch, protein, glucose, NACL) are in an unknown solution. Day 2: Which of the substances (starch or NACL) will be able to diffuse out of the plastic bag or cell if you will. Hypothesis: If the starch and NACL compounds do diffuse through the plastic bag, then we know that these substances will diffuse in an actual cell also. Dialysis tubing, thread, 100 mL beaker, 10 mL graduated cylinder, unknown mixture, food test reagents, test tubes, hot water bath. Step 1- Put on safety goggles and apron. Step 2- First, set up four test tubes on the lab surface; held in place upright. Then pour 2 mL of the unknown solution into the first test tube. Then use the bottle of Biruet reagent to drop exactly five drops directly into the first test tube. Observe the color of the mixed solution. If it turned Indigo then we can conclude that the unknown solution does in fact contain protein. Step 3- Second, pour exactly 2 mL of the unknown solution into the second test tube and then use the bottle of Iodine to drop exactly 3 mL directly into test tube two. If, after carefully observing the change in color; it turned a dark blue then we can conclude that the unknown solution does indeed contain starch. Step 4- Third, pour exactly 5 mL of the unknown solution into the third test tube. Using the Benedicts reagent drop exactly 3 mL directly into the third test tube. Then using the spatula take hold of the test tube and bring it to the heater where you will find a glass container filled with boiling water. Carefully place the test tube in the water and let it sit for exactly five minutes. Finally, Take the test tube out of the boiling water and observe the change in color of the solution. If the color turned a Burnt orange then we can conclude that the unknown solution does in fact contain glucose. ...

Careful with Technical Terms

Careful with Technical Terms Careful with Technical Terms Careful with Technical Terms By Mary One of the most important things to keep in mind is that your writing must be appropriate for your audience. You have to use terminology that makes sense to your readers. When you become a professional in a particular field, you learn the language of that field. As a professional, people hire you to work on their behalf because you have knowledge and skills that they don’t possess. Therefore, you will often find yourself communicating in writing with people who don’t know the language of your field. Your writing has to make sense to the people who read it. If you are a medical billing professional, you know what ICD9, HCFA, and CPT mean. If you are an accountant, you know the difference between a 1099, W-2, W-4, W-9, and K-2 form. If you are an IT professional, you speak in terms of servers, routers, and hubs. If you are a web developer, your language includes terms like .net, PHP, PPC, monetizing, and URL. If you work in a hospital setting, your vocabulary includes terms like DNR, PRN, and QID. If you are a statistician, such terms as chi-square, mutually exclusive, regression analysis, and standard deviation are parts of your every day vocabulary. Chances are that several of the terms you just read don’t make any sense at all to you. When you write, you need to look closely at your messages, to make sure that you aren’t using terms that your readers aren’t likely to understand. You know what you mean. Make sure your writing stands on its own, so that your readers will also know what you mean. That’s what good writing is all about. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Business Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:20 Types and Forms of HumorTop 11 Writing Apps for iOS (iPhone and iPad)Titled versus Entitled

HCM307-0704A-01 The Health Care Industry - Phase 3 Discussion Board 2 Essay

HCM307-0704A-01 The Health Care Industry - Phase 3 Discussion Board 2 - Essay Example They found that the heavy costs of creating duplicate paperwork and sending it in several directions caused lost records, lost cost control and missed patient appointments. It’s a time-waster: Physicians have less and less time for patients. Is it going to take longer to work with these records than jotting down a few notes? While it still takes some learning, modern systems using PDA’s (hand-held devices), electronic pens and voice recognition (for some practices, like radiology) are well sorted-out and ready for prime time. Think about the time we’re wasting today: how long does it take to get a patient’s radiology films, his or her records from previous visits, and labs? How many times have you had to reach for the prescription pad and look up drug interactions? All of that can be handled from the PDA, including electronic transmission of the prescription to the pharmacy. It’s difficult to implement: It certainly requires changes on everyone’s part. A few years ago, implementing EMR with physicians meant installing PC’s on every desk, and requiring the physician to be tied to a chair while he/she laboriously put in all the needed patient data. Some physicians complained at having to learn new terms and change their workflow. Technology has become simpler and more intuitive to use. The ‘heavy lifting’ is done in the back, through servers and communicators. For physicians, the system is well thought-out and fits into our routine. There are so many vendors out there, how can they communicate? IT suppliers have been talking to one another through HL-7 protocols for years. The advent of new, open technologies like Java and XML have made it possible for different systems to talk to one another. Those horror stories about DICOM radiology images not blending with patient records? It’s all history now. And finally, â€Å"that sounds fine, but I’ll let my nurse do it.† The nurse and PA can certainly

Discuss the ethical issues of using GM golden rice in the developing Essay

Discuss the ethical issues of using GM golden rice in the developing world - Essay Example Vitamin A is found in butter, milk, liver and kidney, green and yellow vegetables, but only very little in conventional rice. Today, much of Vitamin A can be supplied by the genetically modified rice that offers beta-carotene, a metabolic precursor to vitamin A. In year 2000, researchers in Zurich and in Freiburg, Germany succeeded in creating the yellow rice that has both beta carotene and iron content (GMO Compass). The GM rice research, which was funded by the Rockefeller Foundation by $100 million, took 10 years to produce the genetic strain. It will take million dollars more and another decade of development at the International Rice Research Center before it can reach the fields of farmers. (Shiva, 2000) Genetic engineering is the deliberate, controlled manipulation of the genes in an organism with the intent of making that organism better in some way (What is.com). This is a thoroughly new technology that alters the characteristics of the living organisms by inserting genetic materials manipulated through artificial means. Union of Concerned Scientists said that advocacies of genetically modified food should proceed with care, alternatives examined, and case to case evaluation of genetic engineering applications be done. GM rice has been a source of complex issues. A group of 22 international scientists and experts, in 2009, questioned this issue in an open letter to Professor Russell at Tufts University School of Medicine, who is in charge of the clinical trials of GM Golden Rice testing to adults and children (GM Watch). This group asserted that â€Å"golden rice is inadequately described in terms of biological and biochemical makeup†¦has not been shown to be stable over time†¦.has never been through regulatory approvals process anywhere In the world†. Researchers from Ban GM food worry on the safety of GM rice as it has not been tested to animals. They argued that when pharmaceutical drugs are tested for safety, it should be first tes ted to animals. When no harmful effect is seen in the animal, it is only then that it should be tested to human volunteers. GM rice defenders said that it is intended for humans, so animal test is no longer needed. Same research group argued that since GM rice is engineered to overproduce beta carotene, they are worried that some retinoid derived from beta carotene are toxic and cause birth defects, as studies would show (GM food.org) As controversies grow, research findings conclude that there are many opinions on the negative effect of GM food, but lacks data to support the claim on the potential risks to health (Arpad, et al.) Potential harm of GM foods can be acute to the young, elderly and those suffering HIV, hepatitis or other viral diseases. Those suffering from gastrointestinal tract, allergies and other disorders are further advised not to consume GM food as there is possibility of unforeseen irreversible consequences. For this reason, GM food labeling should be mandatory, research suggested. The emergence of genetically produced crops has generated various policy reactions from different countries as well. Discussion has reached international level, particularly, the World Trade Organization (Nielson & Anderson). Accordingly, both exporters and importers of GM rice will be affected by the biotech policies of the countries within which they operate. Trade relations are affected by the consumer confidence

Styles in sculptures Essay Example for Free

Styles in sculptures Essay Romans and Greeks have created arts of antiquity. One of the major arts that they ever crafted are sculptures. They are pieces of art that hold diverse functions such as decoration of temples, celebration of the dead or well-known public figure, commemoration of victory and offer to the gods. Those sculptures carry a specific style in accordance to the period that they are made. The sculptures entitled Nike Adjusting Her Sandals and the Discus Thrower (Diskobolos), are two renowned sculptures that demonstrate richness and exceptional styles of Greek antiquity art. Nike Adjusting Her Sandals is a low relief statue carved during the 410-407 B. C by Praxiteles. It is taken from a portion and fragment of the Temple of Athena Nike Parapet (Scott). It delineates Nike, the goddess of victory, bending and stooping to fix a strap of her sandal. The artist reveals his enthusiasm in the discovery and exploration between the drapery and the female anatomy (Hope). The aforementioned stature demonstrates a relief kind of sculpture. It means that the subject has been drawn on a flat surface and further developed in order to achieve its physical form and appearance. It presents in varying degrees a two-dimensional background however, Praxiteles has managed to create a masterpiece where the figure is treated in a relief form but gives a three-dimensional effect on its spectators. Furthermore, the sculpture itself reveals the Greek Classical style of sculpture. It illustrates lively movement, freedom of expression and autonomy of mankind because it is the period when artists started to expand and go outside the formal aesthetic boundaries. They began to articulate human figures in a naturalistic manner (â€Å"Sculpture of the Greek Classical Period†). Nike Adjusting Her Sandal has clearly portrayed that form because the figure itself depicts Nike adjusting a strap of her sandal. It exemplifies freedom in expression because Praxiteles has chosen to create a subject that is exceptionally unfamiliar. He has decided to sculpt the very moment when Nike stoops down. Moreover, it gives an impression of movement within a space. On the other hand, the Discus Thrower (Diskobolos), a Roman version of the lost original Greek bronze sculpture, is created by Myron during the peak of the Classical period amidst 460-450 B. C. In the piece of art, a discus thrower is portrayed in a manner that is about to release his throw (â€Å"Discobolus†). The Discus Thrower is a round sculpture because the subject can be seen in any direction, in any angle, even from above, from below and from behind. It is also free-standing and is fully developed from all perspectives. It also characterizes a Classical style of sculpture primarily because of its subject and the manner that it is rendered. It represents a perfect athletic manifestation. Moreover, it reveals the contrapusto form of sculpture. The mentioned sculpture belongs in the Classical realm because the figure is carved in a realistic manner, portraying the action prior to the throw. Myron’s approach in his piece also illustrates freedom of articulation and boastful, vigorous and convincing movement. The thrower’s muscles and concentrated expression make a strong impression (â€Å"Marble Statue: Discus Thrower†) and lively effect on the spectator. Furthermore, the Discus Thrower is a powerful representation of the Greek sense of harmony and balance (Petronius). Myron divulges mastery of style. On the contrary, there are controversies with regards to the pose of the thrower. Consequently, it is said to delineate an unnatural pose to a human and is considered as an inefficient way to throw the discus. However, the inefficient posture is defended and considered to be because of the ancient Olympic sportsmen’s set of rotation of three quarters prior to the throw. The two sculptures namely Nike Adjusting Her Sandal and Discus Thrower are the same in style because both of them portray Classical sculpture. On the contrary, they are very much different because the two artists, Praxiteles and Myron, render their subjects differently which can be justified into several reasons. First, the types of sculpture that the two objects are presented. Nike Adjusting Her Sandal is a relief sculpture. In contrast, Discus Thrower is a round one. Second, their manifestations are not both natural, which means that the artists have not been loyal and devoted to nature. Nike Adjusting Her Sandal is rendered without a head. The only natural treatment with it is its intricate drapery. On the other hand, the Discus Thrower’s pose is considered to be unnatural. The natural element on it concentrates on the rendition of human figure—its physical features and characteristics. Nike Adjusting Her Sandal and Discus Thrower are primarily different because the former is created by a Greek and the latter is crafted by a Roman even though it is patterned from the original Greek sculpture. Moreover, the distinctions between them lie on their physical depictions even though they both demonstrate similar style. The Greek and Roman sculptures are powerful and strong illustrations of advanced artistic development of the period and of the continent. Nike Adjusting Her Sandal and Discus Thrower reveal the Classical style of sculpture and the two types of sculpture namely relief and round, during those times. Their respective artists present mastery in skills and styles. Praxiteles divulges his mastery in intricate and elaborate drapery. On the contrary, Myron expresses it on the contrapusto form of the figures. Works Cited â€Å"Discobolus. † 2009. Absolute Astronomy. 08 April 2009. http://www. absoluteastronomy. com/topics/Discobolus Hope, Kenneth. â€Å"Nike Adjusting Her Sandal, Temple of Athena Nike, Acropolis.16 May 2007. What Do I Know? 08 April 2009. http://idliketocallyourattentionto. blogspot. com/2007/05/nike-adjusting-her-sandal-temple-of. html â€Å"Marble Statue: Discus Thrower. † 2009. Alibaba. com. 08 April 2009. http://www. alibaba. com/product-gs/204358242/Marble_statue_Discus_Thrower_. html Petronius, Satyricon. n. d. Diskobolos. 08 April 2009. http://penelope. uchicago. edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/miscellanea/museums/discobolus. html Scott, Zack â€Å"The Nike. † 4 December 1996. Visual Arts 11. 08 April 2009. http://orpheus. ucsd. edu/va11/nike. html.

Henry VII & Richard III :: European Europe History

Henry VII & Richard III Richard the Third had just recently become King of England. But he did not know that soon he would not Henry Tudor was from Wales. His surname was really spelt 'Tewdwr.' It was changed to the English way though when he became King of England. Henry was too to France by his Uncle Jasper in 1471, fourteen years before the Battle of Bosworth. His uncle took him to Brittany. There, Henry learnt a lot. He learnt about warfare, treachery and betrayal. He also learned about court politics and how to keep supporters. This helped Henry very much with the Battle of Bosworth. Henry landed at Milford haven in South Wales. He had about two thousand soldiers with him. He marched all through Wales and the Midlands. When he got to the battle site he had around five thousand troops. He had gained more than three thousand on his journey. The battle was fought up on a hill at Bosworth. At the battle site there was a third army. It was small and led by Lord William Stanley. It did not know what side to join. Henry started the battle by moving up the hill and charging at Richard. Stanley decided which side to join. It would be Henry's. He hit on the rear of Richards army causing the Kings forces to run. Richard fell from his horse in the rush and was eventually killed. As the battle ended, Stanley found the Kings crown hanging on a thorn bush. Lord Stanley crowned Henry the King of England. Henry then married Edward the IV'S daughter Elizabeth. This united both of the families together. The battle of Bosworth wasn't any old battle. It was very important in history. The Lancastrian, Henry Tudor defeated the Yorkist, Richard the third at the battle of Bosworth field in 1485 and became King

Bone Forensic Anthropologists Essay

1 How did your findings compare to the rest of your team and to the actual data provided by your teacher? What could account for any variation? 2 Why do you think the pelvis is often the first bone forensic anthropologists look to in determining sex from skeletal remains? The pelvis is the first bone anthropologist look at because a male can not fit a human head through their pelvis. A female (the one that is pregnant) can fit a babies head through her pelvis because its wide enough and doesnt have anything blocking where the baby comes out at. 3 The developmental occurrences you used to determine age stopped at age 25. What are other clues a forensic anthropologist may be able to use to determine age if the bones belong to a person over age 25? Determining the age of a sub-adult skeleton is examination of the teeth and jaw by a forensic anthropologist. However, a comparative analysis may be made using the skull sutures and epiphyseal fusion in the young-adult skeleton. Sutures are the zigzag â€Å"seams† where the bones of the skull meet. Endocranial sutures (inside the skull) are more reliable as an aging method than is ectocranial suture analysis. 4 What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative evidence? Explain how both types of measurements played a role in this activity. Quantitative data Observations that do not involve numbers. These observations were definitely used in this activity when we obsered things like â€Å"heart-shaped vs. round pelvis† or â€Å"blunt vs. sharp upper eye sockets. Quantitative observations are numerical observations. We also used these in this activity for measurements on the sub-pubic angle, the length of leg and arm bones, the nasal index, etc. 5 To analyze the long bones, the femur and the humerus, you looked at bone markings such as condyles, tuberosities and trochanters. Look back at the photographs and at the bone markings on your Maniken ®. How would you describe these markings in your own words? Which features do you think  separate each class of markings from the others? 1. In this activity, you were able to analyze skeletal remains in order to determine four particular traits of an individual. In a real life situation, scientists could provide a more detailed description of the individual based on additional information that can be acquired from the bones of this person. Describe at least two other pieces of information you could possibly learn from bone. Make sure to provide a specific example for each piece of information.

Primal Fear Reflection

If someone in my family suddenly became diagnosed with a serious mental disorder I would be surprised. My family does not have much of a history of mental disorders so it would be surprising to have to deal with one. Depending on the mental disorder my loved one would be diagnosed with would change the way I helped them. If someone in my family kept forgetting things it would be very hard to take care of. I would have to repeat the same things over and over and over until they could understand what I was saying. The multiple personality disorder would also be very hard to control.If the slightest thing I did would piss them off I would have to calm them down somehow depending on what it was that I did wrong, although most of the time the real person has no idea what happened afterwards. I would love my family member no matter what their condition would be. I would take care of them in as many ways possible to help them live close to normal lives despite their struggle with a mental d isorder. My habits would simply change to their advantage. I would try and be there as much as possible to make sure they weren’t getting worse and/or causing more and more problems.I would say the most important thing to take care of my family member would be interchanging depending on what mental disorder they were diagnosed with. I don’t think I could be able to stand seeing my mom or dad or sisters turn into an alternate person who was the complete opposite as them. A serious bipolar disorder would cause me to struggle with their emotions and be able to understand what they were doing and how I could help them. My family members are very important to me and I would go out of my way to help them if they were diagnosed with a serious mental disorder.

Strike on the Inside Corner essays

Strike on the Inside Corner essays The mantle of the best pitcher in baseball is a title that is exchanged between a number of pitchers through the course of generations. With the game ever-changing, pitchers are forced to adapt and the only way to pinpoint the elite is through private recollections of those who faced them. Players of the 70s will nominate Nolan Ryan as the best pitcher of all time; while modern-day players will draw upon personal experience in naming the gritty Roger Clemens as the best ever. However, in the 60s, despite the fleeting star of Sandy Koufax, there was no pitcher a batter wanted to face less than the St. Louis Cardinals Bob Hoot Gibson. Famed for pitching 98-mph fastballs that painted the inside corners and the briskly beating hearts of batters cringing in fear as they stepped to the plate, Gibson, also famed for his frankness, wrote his equally candid memoirs in his autobiography, Stranger to the Game. "Bob Gibson had five pitches: fastball, slider, curve, changeup and knockdown." While some claimed Gibson was a headhunter, you cant argue with the statistics. Winner of the Cy Young in 1968 and 1970, National League MVP in 1968, World Series MVP twice, Gold Glove winner nine times; the list of accolades speak for Gibsons themselves. But behind the glory and the Hall of Fame career, he was a man shaped by the racism that was so abundant in his youth. Indeed, while the autobiography seems initially to dedicate itself to the glorification, deserved or not, of Gibson, it has a deeper meaning that is stated near the beginning of the book and reiterated throughout as he recollects memories from his childhood in the slums of Omaha, Nebraska. This was a time when blacks were forced to drink from different fountains, sit in different parts of the bus, and were relegated to second-class citizens in a nation where all are supposed to be equal, wind blowing through their hair as they st ...

5 Ways To Avoid Interview Panic

5 Ways To Avoid Interview Panic So much work goes into the job search process that by the interview phase, emotions can run tense. You’ve worked so hard to get in the door and now the stakes are high, your palms are sweating, and you’re a bundle of nerves. Here are five things you can do to keep your cool and rock your interview.1. Prepare before you goThe best way to not panic in the interview is to be super well-prepared. If you know everything there is to know about the company and the position, if you have answers to all the usual questions, plus a few unusual ones, if you’re ready with thoughtful, constructive questions for your interviewer when prompted†¦ if you’ve done all of this, then you won’t be nervous about what’s to come. You’ll look confident, driven, and smart, and they’ll know without a doubt you wanted the job enough to do your homework. Who knows, the interview could even turn out to be enjoyable for both of you.2. Get some sleepYouâ₠¬â„¢re nervous. You can’t imagine calming down enough to go to sleep before the big day. But rather than staying up all night pacing (or watching Netflix, or surfing Facebook on your phone) in your darkened bedroom, make yourself a cup of tea and go to bed. You’ll be much fresher and sharper tomorrow, and infinitely less stressed.3. Practice makes perfectGet everything ready the night before. Try on and lay out what you plan to wear. Make sure your shoes are polished and your documents are in order. Then see if you can’t get a friend or roommate to practice asking you questions and assessing your answers. Saying things out loud the night before can make you sound more put together when you’re in the interview.4. Pump upListen to music that either soothes you or motivates you on your way to the interview. Studies show it can have a measurable effect. At very least, it’ll put a bit of bounce into your step and allow you to walk in relaxed and confide nt.5. Show up earlyBeing late is a big strike against you. But being a little early never hurt- especially if you’ve never been to that particular part of town or office before. You’ll be glad you have a few minutes of leeway in case your GPS messes up or you run into unexpected traffic.

Screenplay Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Screenplay - Essay Example She first call for an drew for help, he says he is on his way, she is freaked out, there is scary voice of child that scare her, she run down the stairs, surprisingly, despite going down several stairs, she finds herself trapped in the fourth floor) Girl 1: hey, am done with my research for the day, I think it’s time I get to my room.(she wakes up her friends who appear to be leaving the study table, she decide to leave with them and opts to wait for Andrew) Girl 2: are you going with us? There is this new joint across the school that we want to go and a have a cup of coffee, maybe later watch a movie, this project has been on my neck for the better part of the day, I think it’s the best time get to do a different activity. girl 2: are you sure you don’t want to join us, Andrew can come straight t to the coffee shop and join us, you don’t have to be hard, staying here alone will be boring (Vivian decline the offer of the two girl, she decides to wait by the room and wait for Andrew, she gives him a call and he assures her that he would be thee in as soon as possible. Vivian: (talking to herself) its dark in here, helloooo, is there anyone here, can you’re hear me? She looks frightened; she calls Andrew and informs him that she is in room CMC waiting for him. The room seems very scary; there is one side at the corner of the room where light penetrates. Through Vivian’s eyes, the audience is sucked into the look of Vivian eyes, she seems to be seeing things that are b out the normal, she tells Andrew that she thinks she sees something in room CMC, out of the window of the CMC and into the open space outside, this is the only place where light is able to penetrate, there are sounds that are heard all over, but she cannot see something solid. All she gets to see is a faint glimpse of objects which are moving form one location to

Financial Reporting and Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Financial Reporting and Analysis - Essay Example n laid down by the IASB and the FASB together with the intension of providing a sound future for the accounting standards which have moved to becoming more principals based, internally consistent and internationally converged. This paper has also dealt with the pros and cons of this framework and the agreements are based around the ‘international’ conceptual framework. The IASB is a board which aims at developing and helping to improve the general purpose financial statements, to make sure that it meets to the public interest (Mill, et.al., 2003). The IASB is one of the single high qualities, simple to understand and also one of the only global accounting standards which needs complete information of the general purpose financial statements. The International Accounting Standard Board (IASB) has made various proposals to improve the conceptual framework for financial reporting. The International Accounting Standard Board has proposed to improvise the objectives of the General Purpose Financial Reports (Kitabjian, 2008). The International Accounting Standard Board has focused on improving the General Purpose Financial Reports for potential investors and lenders. They suggest that the report aims at these groups of individuals to help them make informed decisions regarding their capital investments (IASB, 2008). The IASB also works in cooperation wi th the national accounting standard setters which provides for a meeting point for all the accounting standards from across the world. The use of fair value as opposed to the historical cost accounting has always been quite a controversial choice. In this case the use of fair value would prove to be more beneficial when compared to the historical cost accounting as this would have reduced the impact of the credit crunch. In the time of a credit problem and a troubled economy, the use of fair value is one which is most beneficial. The use of fair value is beneficial majorly because the use of the fair value provides

Summary on India Country Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summary on India Country Report - Essay Example The financial year for India is April to March, and during the first quarter of the current financial year (2007-08), real GDP growth was 9.3%, estimated growth rate for the full year being 8.4%. This is on the back of an average annual growth rate of 8.83% in the past four years since 2003 – 04. The above 8% GDP growth performance is not likely to be sustained in the coming two years, forecasts being still healthy at 7.9 % and 7.4% successively. The overall GDP is estimated to cross one trillion US dollars land mark during the current year itself, by a good margin. Sector-wise, industrial and services sectors continue to outperform while the agricultural sector growth will be anemic, as in the past few years. During 2006-07, industry and services sectors accounted for 27.9% and 54.6% of the GDP respectively, the balance 17.5% being for the primary sector in which more than 700 million people are engaged in India. Thus, the bleak outlook for the rural economy stares in the face of Trade in goods and services, with continued political support for liberalization, is showing good performance. Imports are rising due to strong domestic demand for industrial and consumer goods. However, exports which averaged 26.5% growth in the past three years are expected to slow down to 17.2% in the current year, the main culprit being the weakening of the US dollar vis-Ã  -vis the Rupee. Rupee appreciated by over 12.5% in the past 12 months and the export oriented segments of the economy like software services, textiles, leather goods etc are hit by the Rupee appreciation. Rising cost of increased imports and crude oil are balanced somewhat by the rising exports of services along with remittances from non-residents, thus keeping the current account deficit under control, estimated at less than 2% of the GDP for 2008-09. The policy laid emphasis on increased spending on primary

Packet Scheduling Algorithms Literature

Packet Scheduling Algorithms Literature Abstract- This paper discusses two selected research papers that proposes two different packet scheduling algorithms that focuses on promoting higher throughput and fairness. The two algorithms are Modified Packet Prediction Mechanism algorithm which is a revised version of the current packet prediction mechanism algorithm and the second is prioritized fairness packet Scheduling algorithm. Chapter 1 Introduction Mobile communication has come a long way and has been through multiple generations. Starting from a mere mobile radio telephone used in the old ages to sending text based messages and now fourth generation long term evolution supporting devices which are capable of streaming high bitrate videos, providing us with richer content and more connections at faster rates just from our handy mobile devices. Long term evolution structure adequately utilizes the assets by dynamically scheduling the frequency and the time space of users. And that is possible through long term evolution downlink scheduling which is accountable for the allotment of radio resources mutually throughout mobile devices. Implementing packet scheduling is crucial as it effects the performance by assigning radio resources suitably. 1.1 Problem Statement As the usage of mobile data, online mobile gaming, video streaming and other online applications started to grow, the delivery of packets, data transmission and speed has to be improved. While this is possible through the introduction of long term evolution, the quality and capability to has to be improvised by achieving high throughput connectivity which equates to successful data transmission and also fairness, for improving the distribution of the signal. Implementing a downlink scheduling algorithm is sensitive as if takes into effect the throughput, fairness, rate conditioning and so on. Among them, each has its own perks and features but newly or modified algorithm are being proposed and implemented periodically. As such, the modified packet prediction mechanism algorithm is proposed in order that through simulation has proved to perform better in terms of throughput and fairness. Also submitted is the prioritized fairness packet scheduling algorithm with the improvements in. Chapter 2 Literature Review 2.1 Mobile Network During the earlier decades, facilitating limited services like voice call is the main focus in developing mobile networks. Additional services like short message service was introduced by Global System for Mobile Communication. The craving of user in using mobile internet is the main motivation in development of Universal Mobile Telecommunication System, Enhanced Data rates for Global System for Mobile Communication Evolution known as EDGE and finally, General Packet Radio Services. In 1980, the first-generation analog cellular technology Advanced Mobile Phone Service in short form known as AMPS were introduced. Advanced Mobile Phone Service uses distinct channels or frequencies for every Frequency Division Multiple Access. Therefore, it cause Advanced Mobile Phone Service required huge bandwidth for a higher number of consumer. Second Generation offers digitally encrypted voice data and effective usage of available bandwidth. Short message service was introduced in this generation as a form of data services. Global System for Mobile Communication cellular technology is the foundation for other basis cellular networks. Base Transceiver station controls the cells in Global System for Mobile communication. Mobile Station is being served by each Global System for Mobile Communication cell while Base Station Controller monitors a number of Base Transceiver station. Global System for Mobile Communication network is categorized into four basic sub system which is Mobile Station, Base Station Subsystem, Core Network and External Network. Mobile Station consist of Security Information Management and terminal equipment. Base Station Subsystem consist Base Transceiver station, and Base Station Controller. Providing radio access and Core Network connection to Mobile Station is the main function of Base Station Subsystem. Core Network consist of Mobile Switching Station, Visitor Location Register, Home Location Register, Authentication Center and Operation and Maintenance Center. Main role of core network is to provide billing, transport functions, mobility management, user database such as user location and information about user and so on. External Network is where user can connect such as Public Switched Telephone Network or any other Global System for Mobile communication network. Circuit switching is used for communication in Global System for Mobile Communication networks. User start to demand for high data rates when mobile evolves. Therefore, General Packet Radio Services was introduced. General Packet Radio Services offers new services like web browsing provides packet switching hence increase data rates up to 114 kilobits per second. Enhanced Data rates for Global System for Mobile Communication Evolution is evolution of Global System for Mobile Communication after General Packet Radio Services where provides data rate up to 384 kilobits per second. Shifting the modulation of Global System for Mobile Communication from GPSK to 8PSK is the reason of this achievement. Technology Modulation Switching Method Access Scheme Data Rate (kbps) Services Global System for Mobile Communication GMSK Circuit Switching TDMA/FDD 9.6 to 14.4 Voice, short message service. General Packet Radio Services GMSK Packet Switching TDMA/FDD 115 Voice, short message service, Web Browsing Enhanced Data rates for Global System for Mobile Communication Evolution GMSK, 8PSK Packet Switching TDMA.FDD 384 Voice, short message service, web Browsing Global System for Mobile Communication overview Third Generation Partnership Project develop and maintain Universal Mobile Telecommunication System. Providing new services with better quality of services, better spectral efficiency and increasing data rates was the main aim in the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System development. Wideband Code Division Multiple Access is used as an access in Universal Mobile Telecommunication System. Bandwidth of 5 megahertz is used for downlink and uplink traffic. Universal Mobile Telecommunication System Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) is the radio access in Universal Mobile Telecommunication System which consist Radio Network Controller (RNC) and many base stations which known as NodeB. Both circuit and packet switching method is supported in Universal Mobile Telecommunication System. Packet switching is mainly for data services like file transfer, web services while circuit switching is for voice traffic. High Speed Downlink Packet Access known as HSDPA and High Speed Uplink Pack et Access in short form known as HSUPA is the evolution of Universal Mobile Telecommunication System. This Evolution focused in reducing latency, increasing system capacity and data rates. High Speed Downlink Packet Access increases downlink data rates up to 14 Mbps while High Speed Uplink Packet Access increases uplink data rates up to 5.76 Mbps. Technology Modulation Data Rates TTI Time Latency ms Advancements Universal Mobile Telecommunication System BPSK 384 kilobits per second downlink 128 kilobits per second uplink 10 ms 150 Scheduling performed by Radio Network Controller High Speed Downlink Packet Access High Speed Uplink Packet Access QPSK,16 QAM, 64 QAM QPSK 14.4 megabits per second in downlink 5.76 megabits per second in uplink 2 ms 2 ms, 10 ms 100 100 AMC,HARQ, Scheduling at NodeB, MIMO HARQ, Scheduling at NodeB Third Generation overview 2.2 Long Term Evolution Introduction The idea of Long Term Evolution was originally developed due to the need of a technology which is possible to support IP based mobile technology hence, through this, providing features same as broadband connection. The difference between third generation and Long Term Evolution is that third generation is supports both packet and circuit switched while long term evolution supports packet switched and IP based services. Long Term Evolution need to have certain requirements in order to fulfill its goals such as able to provide data rates up to 50 megabits per second for uplink and 100 megabits per second for downlink, higher capacity of need to be provided compare to High Speed Downlink Packet Access, supporting multiple frequency bands, operation need to be cost effective and so on. 2.3 Architecture of Long Term Evolution Four main domains are being used in the architecture of Long Term Evolution which is UE (User Equipment), E-UTRAN (Evolved Utran), EPC (Evolved Packet Core Network) and finally, services. A diagram is illustrated below to show how this four domains are being used in LTE architecture. LTEArchitecture 2.3.1 UE (User Equipment) Device that are being used for communication purpose by end user are called user equipment. Each device has a unique identity module called Universal Subscriber Identity Module. The module being used for identification process, authorization and security for radio transmission. Moreover, the user equipment has other functions as well, such as for an instance mobility management, UI (User Interface) between end users, but mainly it provides communication platform and communication link which can be set up, maintained or removed depending on the user need. 2.3.2 E-UTRAN (Evolved Utran) Evolved NodeB also known as eNodeB is the only existing node in Evolved UTRAN. Radio related activities in the LTE system are being performed through a radio base station located within the network through this evolved NodeB. Besides that, a path is created from the User Equipment to Evolved Packet Core Network with the help of evolved NodeB. Through this, data passing can be done within the ratio connection and IP based Evolved Packet Core Network network connections and evolved NodeB becomes a transmission point to various radio protocols pointing towards the User Equipment. After the data is relayed, Evolve Packet Core Network then performs functions such as ciphering and deciphering to the UP data. In details, activities related to managing radio resource including allocation of the resources based upon on prioritization and traffic scheduling depending on the Quality of Service requirements are also one of the responsibility held by evolved NodeB. Besides that, evolved NodeB is also held responsible for the management of mobility which includes activities such as analyzing radio signal measurements performed by the User Equipment and comes up with same measurements as well. Furthermore, evolve NodeB also handles a new users request for a new connection, the evolved NodeB will route the request to mobility management entity using the previous User Equipment that was connected earlier and if there isnt any information regarding the routing then a new mobility management entity will be selected. The User Equipment can only be connected to one evolved NodeB where else the evolved NodeB is expected to support multiple users. The handover process can be only done if an evolved NodeB is connected to its neighbor, which is another evolved NodeB. A User Equipment can be only assigned with one mobility management entity and serving gateway but multiple mobility management entity and serving gateway can be connected a certain evolved Nod eB. 2.3.3 EPC (Evolved Packet Core) Evolved Packet Core uses different kinds of elements to operate. The elements are Mobility Management Entity (MME), Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW), Serving Gateway (S-GW) and Policy and Charging Resource Function (PCRF). Mobility management entity is the core of evolved packet core. A direct connection is established with user equipment through mobility management entity and this connection will become the main control channel for the user equipment and network. There are many activities conducted by the mobility management entity such as, authentication of the user equipment. Authorization is provided by the mobility management entity as the user equipment is being newly registered to a network. Other activities such as tracking the available user equipment in a certain area is considered to be the main function for mobility management entity and so on. Responsibility of a serving gateway is resources management and provide resource requested from mobile management entity and so on. In details, the request comes from user equipment due to modification of bearers and so on. Besides that, information passing is also done through the serving gateway which occurs among packet data network gateway and evolved NodeB. Another element that is being used is packet data network gateway. This element is being used mainly for IP allocation to the user equipment. Moreover, bearer switching is done at this element when the user equipment transferred at one serving gateway to another serving gateway at different area. Lastly, the policy and charging resource function takes the decision regarding service handling according to the quality of service. 2.3.4 Services A variation of services can be done such as operator services and so on. In order to run the services smoothly many sub systems are needed, plus logical nodes as well. 2.4 Long Term Evolution Access Scheme The access schemes are used in long term evolution can be divided into three different types which is orthogonal frequency division multiple access, single carrier frequency division multiple access and finally, multiple input and output. Each of these scheme has a certain functions and responsibility to follow. 2.4.1 OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Accesses) This scheme is used in downlink in the long term evolution. This scheme was originally modified from Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing. The difference between the modified version and original version is that, orthogonal frequency division multiple accesses allows multiple users by allocating subcarriers dynamically to a variety of users while in the original version, a signal will be divided into a number of band channels which are orthogonal to one and another and consist of different frequencies. Orthogonal frequency division multiple access is used for many reasons, one of it is compatibility. This scheme is compatible with many kind of recently developed antennas and receivers. Moreover, efficiency is another reason this scheme is chosen. Efficiency in handling many bandwidths, performance including spectral can be achieved through this scheme. Originally, Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing was created in the 1950s but was not popular back then due to greatest number of systems were running on analog technology during that time which made the implementation of this scheme hard and less effective. As the era grew, the use of these scheme has increased as it was much more affordable and implementable as well for the end user due to growth of digital technologies. 2.4.2 SC-FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access) As mentioned above, the Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing is only being used for downlink in long term evolution where else for uplink the Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access will be used. This is because of multiple carrier which is being utilized in Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing leading it to be less efficient especially when it comes to power consumption as power will be a serious issue in mobile devices. This problem can be avoided by the use of Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access for the uplink process. Advantages of this scheme is that it will be much more robust in contrast to multi path and hence, a low peak ranging to average is being provided. 2.4.3 MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Out) The Multiple Input Multiple Out scheme can be implemented in both downlink and uplink in long term evolution. A high data rate can be accomplished by using both Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access and Multiple Input Multiple Out as diverse subcarriers will be cast-off. Furthermore, spatial multiplexing meaning that the use of many antennas for transferring diverse data streams and signal processing on the data streams leading to an increase in the data rate is also being done in this scheme. Besides that, even additional functionality such as transmit diversity meaning that relaying the equal signals but originated from different antennas and finally, beam forming as well can be performed in this scheme. 2.5 PRB (Physical Resource Block) According to the base station scheduler, a resource block will be dispersed to the user equipment. This portion is to be considered as the smallest allocation. Moreover, depending on the bandwidth and number of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access symbols, resource grid will be created in the downlink transmission. A sole subcarrier will be symbolized in each box of the grid and called as resource element and hence automatically representing a symbol. Not only will the user data be stored in the resource grid but also reference signal as well. Resource Block Resource block which is subtypes of a resource element in Long Term Evolution network. A resource block consists many channels and different types of data flows are transferred in Long Term Evolution network. The Long Term Evolution network does not have any standard scheduling method. There are different types of method is exists in scheduling but it based on the researcher. One of the command method that been used in scheduling mechanism in Long Term Evaluation is Dynamic scheduling that used for providing Quality of service and efficiency. Dynamic scheduling is used in downlink scheduling. The purpose of the dynamic scheduling is to control the channel of some of the sign indicated. Evolved NodeB is taken the main role in downlink scheduling. As mention earlier the function has been explaining in additionally Evolved NodeB is one of the import factor for performing scheduling. Evolved NodeB is performing scheduling mechanism in Long Term Evolution network for downlink scheduling mechanism and it managed resource block in the resource elements. Nowadays many users are forwarded toward to the technology so that there were required Quality of Service to the specific application its main reason why scheduling is needed. In Long Term Evolution network have a combination of multiple single cells is connected. The user interaction is connected to the Evolved NodeB with single cell but user equipment is contained N number of members. During the process of uplink scheduling, some packet or data may be lost, one of the reason is a delay in the parameter. The delay queue packet is grouped into a single logical channel and downlink scheduling of evolved NodeB is also holding buffer. In the downlink scheduling, each buffer is related to the user equipment and the user equipment is connected to the evolved NodeB. The evolved NodeB has broadcast the specific data traffic of loaded queue. The main reason of scheduling is to increase the performance of throughput and fairness. And reduce packet loss. Scheduling algorithms for evolved NodeB is not standardized but it based on the used Quality of Service of a user; network provider or service provider is analysis the problem and identify new algorithms and solve the user problem. There different type of scheduling method exists in downlink scheduling. Although there are many algorithms had been discovered in the past yet fair scheduling and opportunistic scheduling is widely been used. Firstly, the Fair Scheduling scheme is one of the algorithm that been used for downlink scheduling it can give least data rate to every user and reduced the inertness. Fair Scheduling scheme is used in real time application for example video conference and voice over IP. Fair Scheduling scheme is functioned as least required information rate all the more successfully. Most of the scheduling algorithms are based on these key factor. Secondly Opportunistic Scheduling schema is another scheduling scheme is commonly been used in LTE networks. The Opportunistic Scheduling schema is explained that due to multiple users multiple users scattered around different location number of channel each user gets may vary. Users can experiences better productivity to correct setting of frequency and time. Multi-user can cause the problem to mobile radio channel because different user come from the various environment and they connected with each other. By utilizing multi-client differing qualities system, this radio channel trademark can be used for giving better information rates. The network provider must choose better dynamic scheduling which is included in downlink scheduling. By using the best dynamic scheduling the user can experience better performance in throughput based on the channel it can be done based on the specific spectrum. Therefore, Opportunistic Scheduling schema also have some drawbacks. The Opportunistic Scheduling scheme is not able to provide the better quality of service to the user and subsequently providing poor performance on fairness to the client. This is the reason why the multiple users are cannot transmit the data to their specific client and also another reason is their channels is not good enough. 2.6 Quality of Services in LTE As years pass by the demand for mobile usage has grown exponentially the people now are capable doing a wonderful thing through their smartphone. The advancement of technology has opened up many new applications and uses. This is the reason why people is demanding quality of service to the network provider. The Quality of Service two also deals with real time application such as voice over IP. Then it also deals with the large scale of the networks. In the long term Evaluation network channel is the mediator for the user equipment and evolved NodeB. In the Long Term Evolution network, there has logical barrier connection between two endpoints. During the data transmission between the user equipment and packet data network gateway has virtual have Transmission Control Protocol connection-oriented connection. During the data transmission between the two endpoint data link layer is involved in transporting the Quality of Services to the user. The Quality of Services can be divided into multiple traits which are bit rate, delay, and reliability. Different type of barrier is producing different kind of result for Quality of Services such as these two types of radio channel, for an example using Lee and Ali, where Lee is capable of enduring a larger packet loss and very low latency but Ali do not care regarding the low latency and hence, he is willing to receive the low latency. This example requires the two radio channel and each radio channel is configured with some packet loss and low latency based on the Quality of Service as requested by the user. There are two types of barrier in the Quality of Services in Long Term Evolution network. What is the minimum guaranteed bit rate barrier and non-guaranteed bit rate barrier? Minimum guaranteed bit rate barrier is real time application and it uses least number of information rate that should be ensured. An example of minimum guaranteed bit rate barrier is that the voice over IP, videoconference, stream gaming, streaming video and video call. Non-guaranteed bit rate barrier are used in application but it does not require specific type of bit rate. For the non-guaranteed bit rate is not specific so the bandwidth has to be set for the networks. An example for the non-guaranteed bit rate is file transfer, games and web searching, which is also known as a non-real-time application. The Quality of Services of a class identifier is represented each of the mobile network barriers which analysis by a Quality of Service characteristics. The Quality of Service of Class Identifier is possible to be divided into a standardized factor which is delay, loss rate and priority. The Quality of Service of the Channel Quality Indicator is divided into 9 Quality of Service of Class Identifier characteristics. Below the table shows the Quality of Service of Class Identifier characteristic with the attributes shown. 2.7 Radio Resource Management Therefore, in the Long Term Evolution network, architecture consist of only one node that is evolved NodeB which is intermediate between the user and the main network. Radio resource management is performing is the function on evolved NodeB. Radio resource management performing First In First Out queue method for packet scheduling. Radio resource management also interacts with downlink scheduling for packet delivery. However, the radio resource management is work with Channel Quality Indicator, transmission time travel and media access control address. 2.8 Scheduling mechanism in LTE In the Long Term Evolution network, multiple user interactions are the main function. Then, Long Term Evolution network data and packet are transferred among multiple users based on the user requirement and Quality of Service. In additionally, downlink scheduling is used metric for transmitting the data and packet. Metric is the method of calculation which priority for the resource block. The calculation is based on the data flow and the resource allocation. 2.8.1 Round robin scheduling Round Robin scheduling is mainly based on time quota. Each process is handled and entertained fairly. Round robin algorithm does not rely on the priority of each task. Round Robin algorithm is easier to implement, simpler to handler and starvation free. Each task is given a time quantum. Each process or task is terminated once the allocated time quantum expires. Round robin produces maximum minimum fairness. If the size of each packet of data equally distributes, then packet that queued longer in the waiting queue is given priority. This is not applicable for data in different sizes. Implementation of round robin algorithm results in poor throughput. This is because round robin algorithm do not consider the Channel Quality Indicator. This causes the performance of throughput drop significantly as its the quantity of bits need to be delivered is not rely with the instantaneous downlink signal to noise ratio. Round Robin is one of the mostly used algorithm in packet scheduling in most systems. Round Robin Scheduling Flow Chart 2.8.2 Best Channel Quality Indicator From the name itself we knew that this algorithm chooses the Best Channel Quality Indicator. This algorithm is primarily used to allocate resource blocks with the good radio link environments to the user. Resource block that been appointed by the algorithm comes with the highest Channel Quality Indicator in the resource block compared to other blocks. The Channel Quality Indicator will be transmitted to base station. Base station will perform the Best channel Quality Indicator. Base station will transmits the reference downlink pilot (signal) to the terminal. These downlink pilot will be utilized by the user equipment for the calculation of the Channel Quality Indicator. The higher the value of Channel Quality Indicator, the Best Channel Quality Indicator it is. The Channel Quality Indicator is a 5 bit information which ranges from 0 to 30. Terminals that located far off from the base station most unlikely will be scheduled. The Channel Quality Indicator depends on the terminals distance. The nearer it is, the higher the Channel Quality Indicator. Since this Best Channel Quality Indicator chooses the nearest terminals, it causes starvation for the other users. When comes to the throughput, the Best Channel Quality algorithm performs well. Its performance in term of fairness is really poor. Best Channel Quality Indicators Flow Chart 2.8.3 Proportional Fair Scheduling Proportional Fair is one of the famous algorithm used in scheduling mechanism. Proportional fair scheduling produces high fairness and throughput. User with the maximum priority is given the resources after the calculation of channel condition. User with fewer priority is followed then after the first one. The main focus of the Proportional Fair scheduling algorithm is to support the non-real time services in Code Division Multiple Access High Data Rate. If the scheduler allocates higher number of resources for a particular user rather than channel quality, then the Proportional Fair scheduling mechanism will be affected. Each data flow is given scheduling priority which is indirectly proportional with the estimated resource allocation. This results in maximum cell throughput and satisfactory fairness. When come to freeness, Proportional Fairness scheduling works better than Best Channel Quality Indicator and Round Robin. Although Proportional Fairness is better, yet it still not abl e to complete due to some expectations. For example, if the user become nearer to the evolve NodeB from a long distance, the sound to noise ratio will be increasing gradually (signal shadowing is ignored). Thus, the users original sound to noise ratio will always will be above the average rate. There is possibilities where user can be frequently scheduled. If the user moves farther than the evolve NodeB, then the sound to noise ratio will be lesser than average. It may causes the user to starve. 2.8.4 Modified Largest Weighted Delay First Largest Weighted Delay First algorithm is proposed packets with error rate and different delays Largest Weighted Delay First algorithm

The Importance of Being Earnest :: English Literature

The Importance of Being Earnest A protagonist is described as the main character in the story. The story line revolves around this one character and the events in his/ her life. In the Importance of Being Earnest, Jack Worthing is the protagonist of the play because it is his character that dominates the narrative. His pursuit to marry Gwendolen, and the conflicts and struggles he goes up against to reach his ultimate goal, are traits which develop his character into being the protagonist. For a character to take on the role of protagonist, there always needs to be conflict. Jack Worthing’s first conflict is getting the approval to marry Gwendolen from her mother, Lady Bracknell. In the beginning of the story when Jack, also referred to as Ernest, proposes to Gwendolen, but is denied the ability to marry Gwendolen until he has passed Lady Bracknell’s series of tests; what she sees as a suitable husband for her daughter. This is shown through her statement of: â€Å"I fell bound to tell you that you are not on my list of eligible young men†¦however, I am quite ready to enter your name should your answers be what a really affectionate mother acquires† (Wilde,1438). Earnest informs her that he does not know anything from his childhood, including who his parents are, and why he became an orphan; and now is thought to be unacceptable suitor to marry her daughter, Gwendolen. Lady Bracknell reinforces to Jack that â€Å"to be born, or at any rate bred in a handbag, whether it had handles or not, seems to me to display a contempt for the ordinary decencies of family life that reminds one of the worst excesses of the French revolution†(Wilde, 1440), basically stating that having a hand bag for a parent is an unacceptable â€Å"notion about family life† (Parker), and needed to find out who his parents are before he can marry Gwendolen. It is this sort of conflict that must arise in order for the play to pursue any further. It is the role of the protagonist to ensure that he continues on his pursuit in order to get what one wants, that being the hand of Gwendolen. Jack lies and discoveries â€Å"of human freedom in protean identity† (Parker, 185) which he â€Å"adopt[ed] identities to suit the occasion† (parker, 185). All of these identities and secret lives eventually led to Gwendolen’s hand but also the truth of who Jack really was; the true importance of being Ernest, because being Ernest gets him what he wants. The title of the play â€Å"The Importance of being Earnest† shows significance because this creates conflict and comedy between the

Environmental policy Essay

â€Å"Environmental policy can’t be based solely on efficiency arguments. Issues of ethics are at least as important.† Discuss The above statement is true to a certain extent and in the course of this essay a balanced discussion will be presented in the hope that the outcomes will prove this to be true. To begin, the thoughts of some Russian intellectuals will be put forwards on the subject of Utilitarianism and why efficiency is self-destructive in the long run, thus supporting the statement â€Å"Environmental policy can’t be based solely on efficiency arguments.† To lead on from this there will be a dialogue as to the problems faced by old command and control (hence forth referred to as CAC) policies such as direct regulation and emissions fees from an efficiency and ethical viewpoint. Then, these methods of environmental policy and the ideas of Ronald Coase will be highlighted as an example of ethical influence in possible environmental policy as well as from an efficiency standpoint. Following this will be an outlining of the development of the U.S Tradable permits approach to air pollution control and the ethical influences therein. Taking the ethical issues point raised in the title statement one step further then leads onto the idea of ethical considerations. These have been based around an anthropocentric perspective, thus far and so at this point some views from an eco-centric stance will be considered. To do this, A. Leopold’s ‘The Land Ethic’ will be looked at. The rights of nature will be brought under the umbrella of Ethical issues and discussed from a policy perspective. What economists mean by â€Å"economic efficiency†, is that â€Å"in an ideal economic system, goods worth more than they cost to produce get produced, goods worth less than they cost to produce do not.† (D. Friedman. 2004) This holds firm throughout this discussion, along with the idea of efficiency as it is defined as both: â€Å"The production of the desired effects or results with minimum waste of time, effort or skill,† (dictionary.com 2004) and as â€Å"A measure of effectiveness; specifically, the useful work output divided by the energy input in any system† (dictionary.com 2004). In different aspects of environmental policy, these different definitions of efficiency hold true, though it is clear that they all have the same thing in mind when referring to efficiency. As it Stands, Utilitarianism (the theory of Jeremy Bentham) is an example of efficiency if it were to be applied to policy. Valdimir Odoevsky, â€Å"one of the most brilliant and influ ential representatives of progressive thought [in Russia]† (A. Frolova 1998) of his time, produced a development of the utilitarian theory of J. Bentham, which is illustrated in Alla Frolova’s article ‘Ecological reasoning: Ethical alternatives’. The utilitarian approach to life as put across by Odoevsky, who states that â€Å"utility is an essential driving force of all human actions,† (A. Frolova 1998) it is said to be the driving force for all laws, legislations, activities and morals. It is also suggested that under the notion of utilitarianism, utility should be allowed to take the place of all notions of so called consciousness, so called inborn feeling, all poetical dreams and fantasies. This is a very powerful tool for the representation of efficiency as the sole driver of any policy decisions, even environmental ones, however it is a valid viewpoint where ethics is not taken into consideration. Odoevsky talks of a civilization called Benthamia where under the concept of utility everything runs in a sustainable way. However it is when a new civilization is founded outside of Benthamia that the problems associated with a system void of ethics emerge. Through the use of political intrigues, deceit, and bribery, as well as organizing quarrels among any rival civilizations that emerge in order to weaken them for the benefit of Benthamia, the Benthamites extend their power. After they have sufficiently weakened a civilization to the point where that civilization is of no further use to Benthamia, the weakened civilization is taken into full possession either by the acquisition of it (at the cheapest efficient price) or by the use of force. All of these points are seen to be ethically wrong in today’s world where ethics is â€Å"A set of principles of right conduct† (A. Frolova 1998) and even when there is a call for utilization of â€Å"deserted islands† (A. Frolova 1998) rather than taking over the crushed neighbors of Benthamia, the suggestions are condemned and those who put them forwards are said to be â€Å"idle dreamers† (A. Frolova 1998). In Odoevsky’s vision of utilitarianism, Benthamia is torn apart from within due to different self interests associated with differing social situations throughout the growing civilization and as it is put by Odoevsky â€Å"One day glorious Benthamia ceased to exist.† (A. Frolova 1998) Odoevsky perceives nature as sensitive and responsive in regard to human morals and this representation of efficiency as the sole driver of decision making shows that ethics are important in every aspect of what we do. Less extreme examples of efficiency in environmental policy can be seen when looking at cases such as the policy relating to dealing with the inefficiencies associated with the production of steel. Classic approaches to the problem of the externalities of steel production include direct regulation by the government based on telling the steel industry how much they can pollute, as well as emission fees (called Pigouvian taxes). Emission fees are based around the concept of charging steel companies for the damage done by its pollution. The idea of direst regulation is seen to be an inefficient environmental policy whereas emission fees are said to produce an efficient amount of steel as well as an efficient amount of pollution control. In the real world however emission fees policy is not efficient as it is difficult to measure what the damage caused is as well as it being inefficient to spend time looking for the damage caused. These two policies are based around the idea of efficiency in the steel industry (as an example), though with the insight of R. Coase and the introduction of what many have dubbed â€Å"Coase Theorem† social cost can be associated with efficiency to create a better overall way of viewing the problem of externalities through the introduction of property rights. Rather than a system whereby the government defines the measures that need to be taken by industry or where it is left to the polluter to deal with the control methods as with the previously mentioned CAC policies, the idea of Coase’s theorem defines a policy where, â€Å"if transaction costs are zero – if, in other words, any agreement that is in the mutual benefit of the parties concerned gets made, then any initial definition of property rights leads to an efficient outcome† (D. Friedman. 2004) The way that his argument is put across in the article entitled ‘the Swedes get it right’ is based around the cost of abatement of pollution in a steel factory Vs. the cost of changing downwind land use from a resort to a timber forest. The article, written by D. Friedman, puts forwards a very efficient environmental policy whereby the distribution of property rights leads to the internalization of externalities and the most cost effective outcome on a social level. Under the notion of Coase theorem, if it is cheaper for the resort to pay the factory for the cost of pollution abatement rather than change his own land use then this should be done, producing a situation where everybody is happy and the overall conditions are more desirable. This efficiency based policy is seen to be an advancement of old efficiency based policy though there are still problems associated with it due to the fact that ethics are not considered. One of the largest problems noted by Coase is the idea of the â€Å"Public Good Problem† (D. Friedman. 2004). If there are many different people living downwind of a factory and they contribute to the abatement of the pollution, then if one person does not pay because doing so wont make a difference to whether the abatement is paid or not and the abatement does go through, then that person is seen to be a â€Å"free rider† (D. Friedman. 2004) getting abatement for free. This is why air pollution in Southern California still persists, as there are millions of people living in the area it is hard to get a situation where everyone pays for the abatement of pollution and it is not possible to re-locate this vast number of people. Coase argues that it is not the externalities that essential ly create the problem, but that it is the transaction costs. A policy approach to the environment that has taken ethical issues into consideration can be seen in the US formation of a tradable permit approach to air pollution control. In the discussion about the US system ethical consideration is defined in either of two contexts: â€Å"(1) when the decisions seem to reflect altruistic concerns which transcend self-interest and (2) when the decisions seem to provide special treatment to ‘rights’ which seem to have a special moral justification† (T. Tietenberg. 1998). The emissions trading program is set out as a straight forwards, flexible market based policy where the trading of permits is allowed and efficiency is increased due to the self interests of the participating industries. Through the acquisition of an â€Å"emission reduction credit (ERC)† (T. Tietenberg. 1998) this trading can take place and to acquire this ERC a company must lower its emissions to a point below the required level put forwards by the Cle an air act. Further efficiency is established by the way that the ERC system allows new firms to come into the market, thus, â€Å"by introducing the offset policy EPA [the Environmental protection agency] allowed economic growth to continue whilst insuring progress toward attainment.† (T. Tietenberg. 1998) The efficiency of the tradable permits system can be seen by analysis, which concluded that â€Å"the proposed 0.01 g per leaded gallon (gplg) standard would result in $36 billion ($1983) in benefits (from reduced adverse health effects) at an estimated cost to refining industry of $2.6 billion.† (T. Tietenberg. 1998) As well as being implemented at a national level. Tradable permit systems have also been applied at a regional scale, with air pollution in California being an example of this. RECLAIM (Regional Clean Air Incentives Market) shifts the burden of identifying the appropriate control strategies from the control authorities to the polluter (a point that made direct regulation an inefficient policy based solution, as previously mentioned), and thus the system again proves to be effective due to the fact that now, pollution prevention is given an economic underpinning. Along with these examples off efficiency, the tradable permits system, when compared to emissions char ges and emission standards comes out as a far more effective environmental policy. Ethics can be observed in the Tradable permits approach however, and evidence seen in the paper ‘Ethical influences on the evolution of the US tradable permit approach to air control’ suggests that ethical considerations have played a role in shaping the environmental objective, the choice of instruments, the definition of the tradable commodity, the treatment of shutdown credits, the relationship to traditional regulation and the rules governing permit trades. Thus it is the opinion of the author T. Tietenberg, that ethical influences on the evolution of the US tradable permit approach have been â€Å"blended with pragmatic and political concerns to forge a compromise approach† (T. Tietenberg. 1998). This means that even if ethical issues are considered they do not hold as much weight as efficiency arguments and result in efficiency bias compromises. This can be seen in the case of shut down credits. Among the various ways of creating credits this has been the most controversial point. It is controversial, ethically, because the economic incentive should be targeted at positive actions to reduce pollution through the investment of new control equipment and not through shut-down (which is where a factory is shut down to create a large number of tradable ERC’s). As a result the compromise has produced a situation whereby â€Å"all shut-down credits either revert to the control authority or they could be freely transferred to buyers† (T. Tietenberg. 1998). This is a result that doesn’t stop the process of shut-downs (as would be ethically acceptable) but allows the process to continue but with efficient outcomes rather than hoarding of ERC’s. The ethical issues that have been represented in the case study of Tradable permits in the US have been examples of human-centric ethics focusing on welfare. Some environmentalists, such as A. Leopold focus more on eco-centric ethics and present an argument that through social evolution the land itself should be considered as a member of the community which is taken into account in environmental policy. Leopold, in his article, ‘The Land Ethic’ explains his concept and the problems associated with achieving this goal. It is said to be the case that our educational and economic system is heading away from, rather than towards â€Å"an intense consciousness of land† (A. Leopold. 1949) . Leopold shows through the use of specific examples how there are essentially two different types of conversationalists, as Leopold puts it there are the â€Å"economic value grabbers† (A. Leopold. 1949) and those that see â€Å"land as biota† (A. Leopold. 1949) and worr y about the secondary functions of things such as forests. Leopold gives a good illustration of this through the use of sport and meat. Group A, the economic value grabbers, when presented with the idea, will think efficiently about the subject, being satisfied with the thought that these are things that ‘come from’ nature. Group B however, worries about biotic side issues, for example the cost in predators of producing a game crop. Whereas the ideas associated with Coase’s theorem are related to the health issues and other things that affect humans living downwind of the factory, it is the conclusion of Leopold that, â€Å"A land ethic, then, reflects the existence of an ecological conscience, and this in turn reflects a conviction of individual responsibility for the health of the land† (A. Leopold. 1949). This view holds that the land is to be conserved or protected as some sustainability policies are currently leading towards. It is the opinion of Leopold that sustainability policy should be based around ideas of eco-centric ethics rather than being based around the idea that it is a ne cessity to promote sustainable policies from a human centric point of view. To conclude it can be said that efficiency is still the main focus of environmental policy making however over time the emergence of ethics in policy has emerged, though ethical issues are not considered to be at least as important as efficiency arguments. It has been said that â€Å"without some kind of ethic (a theory of right and responsibility) and some kind of axiology (or value theory) we lack guidance and direction for tackling problems, whether global, environmental, or otherwise† (R. Attfield. 1999). The discussion in this essay has led towards an outcome that supports the statement to a certain degree. It has been shown through the use of the utilitarian argument and some CAC policy methods that efficiency is not the only thing that has to be considered in environmental policy making, and the US case-study supports the notion that a certain amount of ethics has to be involved. But the nature of the ethics that is applied is essentially Human-centric and to consider ethical issues in environmental policy to be as important as efficiency the idea of a land ethic is an important one. As Leopold says himself the idea of a land ethic is not yet public opinion and in fact is only being kept alive by a minority who has revolted against modern trends of efficiency and human-centric ethics. Ethical issues are not as important as efficiency arguments in environmental policy though if the land ethic were to become a popular opinion through re-education and a shift in social thinking then there is a hope that in time the statement will be completely justified. References A. Leopold (1949) The Land Ethic. In: A Second County Almanac. Oxford University Press. Oxford. Alla Frolova (1998) Ecological reasoning: Ethical alternatives. Ecological Economics, 24. p.169-182. Dictionary.com (2004) http://dictionary.reference.com/ David Friedman The Swedes get it right. http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/The_Swedes.html (2004) Robin Attfield (1983) The Ethics of Environmental Concern. Basil Blackwell. Oxford. Robin Attfield (1998) Existence value and intrinsic value. Ecological Economics, 24. p. 163-168 Robin Attfield (1999) The Ethics of the Global Environment. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. Robert Elliot (1995) Environmental Ethics. Oxford University Press. Oxford. Tom Tietenberg (1998) Ethical influences on the evolution of the US tradable permit approach to air pollution control. Ecological Economics, 24. p. 241-257. Student no. 00020854702E